Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

Posted: January 2nd, 2023

Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

 

Ethical concerns in human organ transplantation

Human organ transplantation is perhaps one of the most important ‘miracles’ of modern medicine in the 20^th century. In 1954, the seemingly impossible dream of replacing a dying or dead organ with a healthy organ from a donor became a reality. On 23^rd December, 1954, Drs. John Merrill and Joseph Murray become pioneers in organ transplant medicine by successfully transplanting a kidney at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital. The transplant recipient and donor were monozygotic twins, and this genetic similarity was considered a factor in the operation’s success that allowed the recipient to live for eight more years. After many years of experiments, this duo of doctors conducted the first successful organ transplant operation, a truly miraculous event. It marked the advent of the transplantation era that has since been hailed as an extraordinary leap in medical science. Although it presented a momentous leap in medical science, transplant science offers a concern with regards to the ethical problem of taking an organ from a healthy individual and risking that life to save the life of the recipient (Peterchik, 2006). Thus, organ transplantation offers an opportunity to save the lives of organ recipients, but presents unique ethical concerns.Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

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As the medical industry addresses its primary concern of making sick persons well, organ transplantation causes a qualitative shift in their objectives when the lives of health persons (organ donors) are risked. This concern presents irrespective of the motives, whether they are pure or not. In this case, acquiring the organ involves invading a healthy body to acquire an organ (Foran, 2013). Beyond the ethical concern of risking the life of healthy donors, there is an ethical concern over how the organ was obtained. Organs obtained from relatives raise the question over how donor consent was obtained without coercion. If the organ was obtained from a non-related donor, then the question becomes whether or not the donor should be compensated, how much should be offered as compensation, and if the compensation can be considered coercive influence. If the organ was obtained from a dead donor, then the question becomes what clinical evidence was presented of the donor’s death (Jensen, 2011). Other than the ethical questions over how consent was obtained, there is an ethical question over how to fairly select the organ recipients. Besides that, another ethical question would be how many organs should be harvested to represent a number that sufficiently meets the existing need. It is not difficult to acknowledge that these concerns that have been raised about organ transplantation are ethically problematic (Jensen, 2011).Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

These concerns are sharply distinguished when the organ occurs in the body as a single organ, particularly the heart. Removing a healthy kidney from a living donor can be partially justified by the fact that a healthy donor would have two kidneys presenting as a paired organ and life would continue with one organ. However, donation of a viable heart definitely ends the life of the donor. If we talk of the donor being dead before donating the heart, the question then becomes how to define death. Should we talk of death as when the heart ceases to function, in which case it would no longer be a viable organ. If we talk of coma and brain death as good criteria for determining the ‘death’ of heart donors, then the question becomes how sure are we that the donor will not recover from the coma as this has been documented to occur. This takes us back to the question of under which clinical conditions should a heart be removed from the donor (Miller & Truog, 2012). The medical fraternity has attempted to address this question by defining death as irreversible coma and flat encephalogram evidenced by no reflexes, lack of breathing and movement, and unresponsiveness. However, this does not unequivocally answer the question and creates room for ambiguity. It does not clearly distinguish between death and persistent vegetative state. Rather, it designates when persistent vegetative state should be considered as death and handled as such. The criteria for death among organ donor has since then been refined to include irreversible cessation of brain, respiratory and circulatory functions as indications of death. Still, it is important to note that this is an ongoing debate between ethicists and the medical fraternity (Miller & Truog, 2012).Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

The debate over how to define death among organ donors has not halted transplantation activities. However, organ transplantation activities have raised concerns about the failure of these organs to prolong life and whether the benefits truly exceed the costs. Of the first 160 heart transplants conducted around the world in the late 1960s, only 10 recipients survived for more than one year, implying a 6.25% survival rate among recipients. While this figure caused enthusiasm to wane at the time with a pause on transplant surgeries until the mid-1970s, conviction remained remain high among the medical fraternity. This was based on the awareness that better selection of recipients and procedures as well as better immunosuppressive medication would turn into a life sustaining intervention allowing the recipients to live for longer without experiencing organ failure (Abdeldayem, El-Kased & El-Sharaawy, 2016). The five-year pause on transplant surgeries represented a truly ethical action. The medical fraternity understood that the transplant surgeries represented a miracle for those who survived, but they voluntarily ceased all actions and proceeded to refine the technique to improve the recipient survival rates. They ensured that the miracle was not merely a public relations gimmick, but that it turned into a true boon for the organ recipients. Throughout organ transplantation history, there have been similar pauses although less dramatic. These pauses sought to reconsider recipient selection and medical techniques after realizing that the medical fraternity has the ethical imperative to do no harm and be of benefit (Abdeldayem, El-Kased & El-Sharaawy, 2016).Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

In the midst of these ethical concerns is the major issue of viable transplant organs being scarce. The reality is that there are fewer viable organs that the number of patients who require these organs: needs exceeds supply. This scarcity has created new economic, social and ethical concerns with regards to transplant organs procurement. Stakeholders have sought to address these concerns through presenting two principles government organ procurement. The first principle is that an organ must be donated through explicit instructions of the donor who can either be dead or living. The second principle is that no financial compensation should be offered to the donors, except to cover their medical costs. The two principles characterize the prevailing ethos on organ transplantation. They seek to advance the spirit of volunteerism and altruism to ensure common good even as exploitation of healthy poor and commercialization of organs is prevented, and organ distribution equality is promoted (Beard, Kaserman & Osterkamp, 2013).Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

Still, organs supply remains a persistent issue. Even with explicit criteria for ensuring that transplant organs are identified and fairly distributed among recipients to address their medical needs, patients’ evaluation for suitability remains a problem. The patient evaluation criteria includes the capacity to comply with the transplant regiment, an appraisal approach that presents opportunities for clinical bias when medical personnel who recommend recipients intentionally skew medical data to favor specific recipients who would then go top of the transplant list. Another challenge that is slowly emerging from this issue is organ tourism that sees patients in need travel to countries with deficient medical services and less stringent transplant regulations to get organs before returning to their countries of origin to re-enter an already burdened health care system (Tsouflas, 2018).

This evaluation reveals that organ transplant presents many concerns that have an ethical basis. To be more precise, organ transplantation is an extraordinary step in medical science. However, unlike other medical advances, the activity has the special feature of not only involving patients (recipients) and medical personnel, but also the organ and the donor. It becomes clear that organs are precious resources that could be lost to potential recipients who truly need them if not efficiently used. It is this complicated network (medical personnel, organ, donor and recipient) that makes organ transplantation a unique medical activity (Adamo et al., 2014).Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

One must accept that organ transplant represents a major advance in medical science, through offering persons with failed organs the opportunity to get healthy organs. In addition, one must acknowledge that organ transplantation presents some ethical concerns. The first ethical concern is how to justify the health risk that living donors bear when a healthy organ is removed. The second ethical concern is how the organ was obtained in terms of consent and if coercion was used. The third ethical concern is how to fairly select the organ recipients. The fourth ethical concern is how to define ‘death’ when harvesting organs. The fifth ethical concern is whether organ transplantation is truly worth it in terms of cost/benefit analysis since survival rate is low. The sixth ethical concern is opportunities for organ distribution inequality, exploitation of healthy poor and commercialization of organs. The seventh ethical concern is how to ensure a suitable supply of adequate organs as well as organ tourism. Addressing the presented ethical concerns would make organ transplant a more acceptable activity. In this respect, organ transplantation offers an opportunity to save the lives of organ recipients, but presents unique ethical concerns.Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

 

Criteria % Value 1: Unsatisfactory 2: Less Than Satisfactory 3: Satisfactory 4: Good 5: Excellent % Scaling 0% 65% 75% 85% 100% Content & Ideas – 40% Definition Argument Content and Ideas Should: Include an effective title. Provide a thesis that centers specifically on an argument of definition. Establish clear criteria related to the definition in question. Match one or more cases to the established criteria. Use evidence appropriate for definitional arguments. 40% Does not have title, and has missing or indiscernible thesis statement and minimal evidence to support main ideas. Argument includes elements of reasoning by definition, but does not center on a definition argument. Student does not use outside sources. Title may not suggest subject and does not spark interest. Thesis statement and/or the controlling idea are not clearly stated. Argument includes elements of a definitional argument, but does not use strategies (especially the criteria-match structure) very well. Ideas are underdeveloped and clichéd. They do not support the thesis. Evidence from outside sources can be irrelevant. Title suggests subject but does not spark interest. Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.Thesis statement identifies the main point the author is trying to make. Most of content relates to thesis statement, but lacks sufficient support through appropriate strategies. Argument centers specifically on a definitional argument, but may not effectively uses strategies that support it, including matching criteria for definition arguments Cited evidence sometimes does not justify ideas. Title suggests subject but does not necessarily spark interest. Thesis statement clearly identifies the main point the author is trying to make. Argument centers specifically on a definitional argument and uses strategies that support it, including matching criteria for definition arguments. Most of the content supports thesis, and cited evidence usually justifies ideas. Title suggests subject and sparks interest. With a clear, controlling idea, thesis statement effectively identifies the main point the student is trying to make. Content supports thesis well. Argument centers specifically on a definitional argument and effectively uses strategies that support it, including matching criteria for definition arguments Specific, cited evidence justifies ideas and enriches the essay. Organization – 12% Organization 12% No apparent organization present. Ineffective introduction does not invite readers or explain the subject. The reader cannot find the thesis statement. Underdeveloped paragraphs lack focus and topic sentences. No conclusion present. No apparent organization present. Introduction explains subject, but does not engage readers. Thesis is difficult to find. Underdeveloped paragraphs lack focus and topic sentences. Weak conclusion offered. Organization is clear, but with minor errors. Introduction explains subject, but does not adequately engage readers. Thesis may be misplaced. Paragraphs are not developed around topic sentences, and may not always advance essay’s ideas. Conclusion summarizes but does not conclude. Organization aids readers in understanding content. Introduction explains subject, but may not engage readers.Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay. Thesis statement is placed appropriately, according to the genre set forth in the assignment description in the syllabus. Well-ordered paragraphs are developed around topic sentences, and advance essay’s ideas. Conclusion may be more of a summary. Logically organized to lead readers to understanding content. Introduction explains subject and engages readers. Thesis statement is placed appropriately, according to the genre set forth in the assignment description in the syllabus. Well-ordered paragraphs are developed around topic sentences, and advance essay’s ideas. Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.Conclusion provides strong, satisfying ending, not a mere summary of the essay. Format – 16% Paper Format 16% Layout: Essay lacks more than THREE of the following: double-spaced, 12 pt, Times New Roman font, 1inch margins, heading (with name, course, date, and instructor), assignment title, and page numbers using appropriate header function. Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.Not all information, paraphrases, quotations, and borrowed ideas are cited on the page they appear; little or no in-text citations and/or entries on reference page used; major documentation oversights noted; major format errors and omissions noted; inappropriate number of required sources used. Layout: Essay lacks THREE of the following: double-spaced, 12 pt. Times New Roman font, 1inch margins, heading (with name, course, date, and instructor), assignment title, and page numbers using appropriate header function. Not all information, paraphrases, quotations, and borrowed ideas are cited on the page they appear; missing more than one citation and/or reference entry; significant documentation oversights noted; significant format errors or omissions noted; inappropriate number of required sources used. Layout: Essay lacks TWO of the following: double-spaced, 12 pt. Times New Roman font, 1 inch margins, heading (with name, course, date, and instructor), assignment title, and page numbers using appropriate header function. Not all information, paraphrases, quotations, and borrowed ideas are cited on the page they appear; missing one in-text citation and/or reference entry; minor documentation oversights noted; minor formatting errors or omissions noted; appropriate number of required sources are used. Essay lacks ONE of the following: double-spaced, 12 pt. Times New Roman font, 1inch margins, heading (with name, course, date, and instructor), assignment title, and page numbers using appropriate header function. All information, paraphrases, quotations, and borrowed ideas are cited on the page that they appear and are listed on the references page (GCU format); some minor errors or omissions in format noted; appropriate number of required sources is used.Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay. Layout: Essay is double-spaced with 12 pt. Times New Roman font, 1inch margins, heading (with name, course, date, and instructor), assignment title, and page numbers using appropriate header function. All information, paraphrases, quotations, and borrowed ideas are cited in parenthetical GCU format; all sources are listed on the references page (GCU format); all citations and reference entries are complete and in alphabetical order; appropriate number of required sources is used. Language & Style – 16% Language & Style 16% Voice & tone are inappropriate and ineffective in creating appropriate mood. Inappropriate word choice used. Sentence structure includes ungrammatical structures and no variety. Writing is wordy. Voice & tone are inappropriate and ineffective in creating appropriate mood. Word choice fails in use of appropriate, precise language and strong verbs. Includes too many to be verbs. No attempt to vary sentence structure noted. Writing is wordy. Voice & tone usually do not characterize ideas appropriately or effectively create appropriate mood. Word choice includes nonstandard outdated usage, too many to be verbs, is not precise, and is occasionally incorrect. Some slang or jargon exists in the paper. Inadequate variety in sentence structure noted. Writing is wordy. Voice & tone usually characterize ideas effectively create appropriate mood. Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.Word choice usually includes current standard usage, active verbs, concrete nouns, and precise words. Some slang or jargon exists in the paper. Some variety of sentence structures strengthens the ideas, creates vitality, and avoids choppiness in the writing. Writing is mostly concisely written. Voice & tone characterize ideas and effectively create appropriate mood. Word choice includes current standard usage, active verbs, concrete nouns, and precise words. Sentence structures strengthen the ideas, create vitality, and avoid choppiness in the writing. Writing is concise. Grammar & Mechanics – 16% Grammar & Mechanics 16% Demonstrates no control of grammar, spelling, & punctuation conventions. Many errors, such as: Apostrophe use Capitalization Commas misplaced or missing Parallelism Faulty point of view shifts Pronoun agreement Quotation errors Semicolons misused Run-ons & fragments Spelling errors Subject-verb agreement Tense shifts Demonstrates minimal control of grammar, spelling, & punctuation conventions. Several errors, such as: Apostrophe use Capitalization Commas misplaced or missing Parallelism Faulty point of view shifts Pronoun agreement Quotation errors Semicolons misused Run-ons & fragments Spelling errors Subject-verb agreement Tense shifts Demonstrates reasonable control of grammar, spelling, & punctuation conventions. Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.Some errors, such as: Apostrophe use Capitalization Commas misplaced or missing Parallelism Faulty point of view shifts Pronoun agreement Quotation errors Semicolons misused Run-ons & fragments Spelling errors Subject-verb agreement Tense shifts Demonstrates high control of grammar, spelling, & punctuation conventions. Few errors, such as: Apostrophe use Capitalization Commas misplaced or missing Parallelism Faulty point of view shifts Pronoun agreement Quotation errors Semicolons misused Run-ons & fragments Spelling errors Subject-verb agreement Tense shifts Demonstrates outstanding control of grammar, spelling, & punctuation conventions. No errors, such as: Apostrophe use Capitalization Commas misplaced or missing Parallelism Faulty point of view shifts Pronoun agreement Quotation errors Semicolons misused Run-ons & fragments Spelling errors Subject-verb agreement Tense shifts

 

 

Goal

Write a 1,500-1,750-word essay using five to seven academic resources in which you argue that a contested “case” involving the sale, trade, or donation of human organs fits (or does not fit) within a given category. A case may include a specific news article, story, or incident illustrating a dilemma or controversy relating to the exchange of human organs. The case does not need to be a court case.Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

 

Directions

Follow these steps when composing your essay:

 

1. Start by selecting a controversial case found in the media involving the sale, trade, or donation of human organs. For example, an appropriate case might include a story in the news about an organ broker, and the term to define might be “criminal.”
2. Decide what category you think your case belongs in, with the understanding that others may disagree with you about the definition of your category, and/or whether your chosen case matches your category.Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.
3. In the opening of your essay, introduce the case you will examine and pose your definition question. Do not simply summarize here. Instead, introduce the issue and offer context.
4. To support your argument, define the boundaries of your category (criteria) by using a commonly used definition or by developing your own extended definition. Defining your boundaries simply means naming the criteria by which you will discuss your chosen case involving the sale, trade, or donation of human organs. If you determine, for example, that an organ broker is a criminal, what criteria constitute this? A criminal may intentionally harm others, which could be one of your criteria.
5. In the second part of your argument (the match), show how your case meets (or does not meet) your definition criteria. Perhaps by comparing or sizing up your controversial case to other cases can help you to develop your argument.

This essay is NOT simply a persuasive essay on the sale, trade, or donation of human organs. It is an argumentative essay where the writer explains what a term means and uses a specific case to explore the meaning of that term in depth.

 

First Draft Grading

 

• You will receive completion points for the first draft based upon the successful submission of a complete draft.
• Because your first draft is a completion grade, do not assume that this grade reflects or predicts the final grade. If you do not consider your instructor’s comments, you may be deducted points on your final draft.Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.

 

Final Draft Grading

 

The essay will be graded using a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the assignment criteria and expectations.

 

Sources

 

• Include in-text citations and a references page in GCU Style for FIVE to SEVEN scholarly sources outside of class texts.
• These sources should be used to support any claims you make and should be present in the text of the essay.
• Use the GCU Library to help you find sources.
• Include this research in the paper in a scholarly manner.

 

Format

 

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the GCU Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center.

 

LopesWrite

 

You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. Refer to the LopesWrite Technical Support articles for assistance.

 

 

Ethical Concerns in Human organ Transplantation Essay.